{"id":4884,"date":"2015-02-17T17:20:58","date_gmt":"2015-02-17T17:20:58","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/?page_id=4884"},"modified":"2016-04-18T11:45:20","modified_gmt":"2016-04-18T10:45:20","slug":"liver-fluke","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/disease-management\/cattle-diseases\/liver-fluke\/","title":{"rendered":"Liver Fluke"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><div class=\"printfriendly pf-button  pf-alignright\">\n                    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/disease-management\/cattle-diseases\/liver-fluke\/?pfstyle=wp\" rel=\"nofollow\" onclick=\"pfTrackEvent(&#039;Liver Fluke&#039;); return false;\" title=\"Printer Friendly, PDF & Email\">\n                    <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"pf-button-img\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.printfriendly.com\/buttons\/printfriendly-pdf-email-button-notext.png\" alt=\"Print Friendly, PDF & Email\" style=\"width: 110px;height: 30px;\"  \/>\n                    <\/a>\n                <\/div><\/p>\n<h2>Cattle Diseases<\/h2><div id=\"gticontainer\"><div class=\"gti_clear\"><\/div><div id=\"gti_letterindex\"><ul><li><a href=\"#gti_all\">All<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_A\" href=\"#\">A<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_B\" href=\"#\">B<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_C\" href=\"#\">C<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_D\" href=\"#\">D<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_E\" href=\"#\">E<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_F\" href=\"#\">F<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_G\" href=\"#\">G<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_H\" href=\"#\">H<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_I\" href=\"#\">I<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_J\" href=\"#\">J<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_K\" href=\"#\">K<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_L\" href=\"#\">L<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_M\" href=\"#\">M<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_N\" href=\"#\">N<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_O\" href=\"#\">O<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_P\" href=\"#\">P<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_R\" href=\"#\">R<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_S\" href=\"#\">S<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_T\" href=\"#\">T<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_U\" href=\"#\">U<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_V\" href=\"#\">V<\/a><\/li><li><a id=\"gti_sel_W\" href=\"#\">W<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"gti_clear\"><\/div><\/div><div class=\"tagindex\"><div id='gti_div_A'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_A'>A<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/abomasal-displacement\/\">Abomasal Displacement<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/abortion\/\">Abortion<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/acetonaemia\/\">Acetonemia<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/actinobacillosis\/\">Actinobacillosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/actinomycosis\/\">Actinomycosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/allergic-dermatitis\/\">Allergic Dermatitis<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_B'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_B'>B<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/blackleg\/\">Blackleg<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/bloat\/\">Bloat<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/botulism\/\">Botulism<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/bovine-fasciolosis\/\">Bovine Fasciolosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/bovine-herpes-1\/\">Bovine Herpes-1<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/bovine-spongiform-encephalopathy\/\">Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/bovine-tuberculosis\/\">Bovine Tuberculosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/bovine-viral-diarrhoea\/\">Bovine Viral Diarrhea<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/brucellosis\/\">Brucellosis\u00a0<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/bse\/\">BSE<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/bvd\/\">BVD<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_C'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_C'>C<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/calcium-deficiency\/\">Calcium Deficiency\u00a0<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/calf-diarrhoea\/\">Calf Diarrhea<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/calf-pneumonia\/\">Calf Pneumonia<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/campylobacteriosis\/\">Campylobacteriosis\u00a0<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/ccn\/\">CCN<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/cerebrocortical-necrosis\/\">Cerebrocortical Necrosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/clostridial-disease\/\">Clostridial Disease<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/cobalt-deficiency\/\">Cobalt Deficiency<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/coccidiosis-in-cattle\/\">Coccidiosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/colibacillosis\/\">Colibacillosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/conjunctivitis\/\">Conjunctivitis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/copper-deficiency\/\">Copper Deficiency<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/coronavirus\/\">Coronavirus<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/cryptosporidiosis-in-cattle\/\">Cryptosporidiosis<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_D'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_D'>D<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/dermatitis\/\">Dermatitis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/dermatophytosis\/\">Dermatophytosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/dictyocaulus-viviparus\/\">Dictyocaulus viviparus<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/digital-dermatitis\/\">Digital Dermatitis<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_E'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_E'>E<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/e-coli-infection\/\">E. coli infection<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/eimeria\/\">Eimeria<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/endoparasites\/\">Endoparasites<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/enzootic-pneumonia\/\">Enzootic Pneumonia<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/epizootic-abortion\/\">Epizootic Abortion<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/etec\/\">ETEC<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_F'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_F'>F<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/fasciola-hepatica\/\">Fasciola hepatica<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/fat-cow-syndrome\/\">Fat Cow Syndrome<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/flabby-bag\/\">Flabby Bag<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/foul-in-the-foot\/\">Foul-in-the-foot<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/fungal-abortion\/\">Fungal Abortion<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_G'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_G'>G<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/grass-staggers\/\">Grass Staggers<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/grass-tetany\/\">Grass Tetany<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_H'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_H'>H<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/haemonchus\/\">Haemonchus contortus<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/hock-damage\/\">Hock Damage<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/husk\/\">Husk<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/hygroma\/\">Hygroma<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/hypocalcaemia\/\">Hypocalcaemia<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/hypocupraemia\/\">Hypocupremia<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/hypoglycaemia\/\">Hypoglycemia<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/hypomagnesaemia\/\">Hypomagnesemia<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_I'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_I'>I<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/ibr\/\">IBR<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/infectious-bovine-keratoconjunctivitis\/\">Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis\/\">Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_J'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_J'>J<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/johnes-disease\/\">Johne's Disease<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/joint-ill\/\">Joint Ill<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_K'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_K'>K<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/keratoconjunctivitis\/\">Keratoconjunctivitis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/ketosis\/\">Ketosis<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_L'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_L'>L<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/lactation-tetany\/\">Lactation Tetany<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/laminitis\/\">Laminitis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/lda\/\">LDA<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/leptospirosis\/\">Leptospirosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/listerial-encephalitis\/\">Listerial Encephalitis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/liver-fluke\/\">Liver Fluke<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/lumpy-jaw\/\">Lumpy Jaw<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/lungworm\/\">Lungworm<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_M'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_M'>M<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/mad-cow-disease\/\">Mad Cow Disease<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/magnesium-deficiency\/\">Magnesium Deficiency\u00a0<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/malignant-oedema\/\">Malignant Edema<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/mange\/\">Mange<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/mastitis\/\">Mastitis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/metritis\/\">Metritis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/milk-drop-syndrome\/\">Milk Drop Syndrome<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/milk-fever\/\">Milk Fever<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/mucosal-disease\/\">Mucosal Disease<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/muscular-dystrophy\/\">Muscular Dystrophy<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/mycobacterium-johnei\/\">Mycobacterium johnei<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/mycobacterium-paratuberculosis\/\">Mycobacterium Paratuberculosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/mycotic-abortion\/\">Mycotic Abortion<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/myopathy\/\">Myopathy<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_N'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_N'>N<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/nematodirus\/\">Nematodirus battus<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/neospora-caninum\/\">Neospora caninum\u00a0<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/new-forest-eye\/\">New Forest Eye<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/nutritional-myodegeneration\/\">Nutritional Myodegeneration<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_O'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_O'>O<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/ostertagia\/\">Ostertagia ostertagi<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_P'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_P'>P<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/parasitic-bronchitis\/\">Parasitic Bronchitis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/parasitic-gastroenteritis\/\">Parasitic Gastroenteritis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/paratuberculosis\/\">Paratuberculosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/pasteurellosis\/\">Pasteurellosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/pen\/\">PEN<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/periparturient-paresis\/\">Periparturient Paresis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/pink-eye\/\">Pink Eye<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/polioencephalomalacia\/\">Polioencephalomalacia<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/post-partum-conditions\/\">Post-partum conditions<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/pregnancy-toxaemia\/\">Pregnancy Toxemia<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_R'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_R'>R<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/rda\/\">RDA<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/retained-placenta\/\">Retained placenta<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/ringworm\/\">Ringworm<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/rotavirus-and-coronavirus\/\">Rotavirus and Coronavirus<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/roundworms\/\">Roundworms<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/ruminal-tymphany\/\">Ruminal Tymphany<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_S'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_S'>S<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/salmonellosis\/\">Salmonellosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/sarcoptes-scabiei\/\">Sarcoptes scabiei<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/scours\/\">Scours<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/selenium-deficiency\/\">Selenium Deficiency<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/septic-arthritis\/\">Septic Arthritis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/septicaemic-colibacillosis\/\">Septicemic Colibacillosis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/shipping-fever\/\">Shipping Fever<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/slurry-heel\/\">Slurry Heel<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/sole-ulcer\/\">Sole Ulcer<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/staggers\/\">Staggers<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/super-foul\/\">Super Foul<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_T'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_T'>T<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/tb\/\">TB<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/tetanus\/\">Tetanus<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/thiamine-deficiency\/\">Thiamine Deficiency<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/transit-fever\/\">Transit Fever<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/trichomoniasis\/\">Trichomoniasis<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/tuberculosis\/\">Tuberculosis<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_U'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_U'>U<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/udder-inflammation\/\">Udder Inflammation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_V'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_V'>V<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/vitamin-b-deficiency\/\">Vitamin B Deficiency<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/vitamin-b12-deficiency\/\">Vitamin B12 Deficiency<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/vitamin-e-deficiency\/\">Vitamin E Deficiency<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><div id='gti_div_W'><div class='blockletter' id='gti_W'>W<\/div><ul><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/white-line-abscess\/\">White Line Abscess<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/white-muscle-disease\/\">White Muscle Disease<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/wooden-tongue\/\">Wooden Tongue<\/a><\/li><li style=\"width:100%;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/cattle-diseases\/\/worms\/\">Worms<\/a><\/li><\/ul><div class='gti_clear'><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h4>Liver Fluke in Cattle<\/h4>\n<p><em><strong>Also known as: Bovine Fasciolosis, Fasciola hepatica<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<div class=\"two_third\">\n<p><strong>Bovine fasciolosis is an economically important disease of cattle, which can be associated with particular regions throughout the world directly linked to the habitat of an aquatic mud snail. In Europe the snail species naturally infected with <em>Fasciola hepatica<\/em> (Liver fluke)<em> is Galba trunculata<\/em>, and in the USA multiple fresh water snail species belonging to the genus <em>Lymnaea<\/em> have been reported to\u00a0harbor\u00a0infection (<a href=\"#ref\">Dunkel et al., 1996<\/a>). In the UK bovine fasciolosis was historically more prominent in the wetter western half, although in recent years an increase in the number of cases of fasciolosis have been reported across the UK (<a href=\"#ref\">Pritchard et al., 2005<\/a>). This may be a result of a warmer, wetter climate, especially in the summer and movement of infected sheep (<a href=\"#ref\">Daniel, 2004<\/a>). One study suggests that 50-80% of dairy herds in England and Wales have lactating dairy cows that have been exposed to <em>Fasciola hepatica<\/em> infection (<a href=\"#ref\">Salimi-Bejestani et al., 2005<\/a>). Calves and yearlings are most commonly affected, but any age of animal may be susceptible. Climatic and hydrological factors play an important part in the epidemiology of the disease.<\/strong><\/p>\n<div class=\"hr hr3\" style='margin:30px 0 10px 0 !important;'><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"one_third last\">\n<a class=\"button medium alternative-1\" title=\"Control and Prevention\" href=\"#control_prevention\">Control and Prevention<\/a><br \/>\n<a class=\"button medium alternative-1\" title=\"Grazing management\" href=\"#grazing\">Grazing Management<\/a><br \/>\n<a class=\"button medium alternative-1\" title=\"Snail habitat management\" href=\"#snail\">Snail Habitat Management<\/a><br \/>\n<a class=\"button medium alternative-1\" title=\"Monitoring for fluke infection\" href=\"#fluke\">Monitoring for Fluke Infection<\/a><br \/>\n<a class=\"button medium alternative-1\" title=\"What are the treatment options?\" href=\"#treatment\">Treatment Options<\/a><br \/>\n<a class=\"button medium alternative-1\" title=\"Good Practice Based on Current Knowledge\" href=\"#good_practice\">Good Practice<\/a>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"clear\"><\/div>\n<h3>Liver Fluke Life Cycle<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>The adult fluke resides in the bile ducts in the liver of the <span class=\"tooltips\"><a href=\"#\" rel=\"tooltip\" title=\"The host in which a parasite reaches maturity\">definitive host<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li>The eggs they shed are passed down the bile ducts and into the intestine to be excreted in the feces. One fluke can pass between 5000 and 20,000 eggs per day<\/li>\n<li>When environmental conditions are suitable (wet and &gt;10\u2070C), the fluke eggs hatch into small infective larvae (miracidia)<\/li>\n<li>The miracidium actively seek a specific mud snail <span class=\"tooltips\"><a href=\"#\" rel=\"tooltip\" title=\"A (second) host where an essential transitional part of the parasite lifecycle occurs\">intermediate host<\/a><\/span> (<em>Galba trunculata i<\/em>n Europe)<\/li>\n<li>In the digestive tract of the snail, the miracidia develop into cercaria<\/li>\n<li>From one miracidium, six hundred or more cercaria are produced, emerging from the snails after about 6 weeks, depending on the climate<\/li>\n<li>The cercariae swim to attach themselves to herbage where they lose their tails and secrete a tough cyst wall to become metacercariae<\/li>\n<li>At 12-14 \u00b0C, up to 100% of metacercariae can survive for six months, though only 5% survive for 10 months. For prolonged survival, the relative humidity needs to be above 70%<\/li>\n<li>Once ingested by cattle, the immature fluke burrow through the gut wall and pass to the liver. They are voracious feeders and migrate through the liver <span class=\"tooltips\"><a href=\"#\" rel=\"tooltip\" title=\"The functional part of an organ\">parenchyma<\/a><\/span> to reach the bile duct, where they mature. Egg laying commences some 10-12 weeks after the initial infection, which is of diagnostic importance.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span class=\"responsive\"><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7702\" style=\"width: 970px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/Liver-Fluke-LC-Cattle.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7702\" class=\"wp-image-7702 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/Liver-Fluke-LC-Cattle-1024x731.jpg\" alt=\"Life Fluke Life Cycle in Cattle\" width=\"960\" height=\"685\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/Liver-Fluke-LC-Cattle-1024x731.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/Liver-Fluke-LC-Cattle-300x214.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/Liver-Fluke-LC-Cattle.jpg 1416w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 960px) 100vw, 960px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-7702\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>The length of the complete life cycle of\u00a0<em>Fasciola hepatica<\/em> (Liver fluke) is very long and varies depending on the season as it requires a definitive host (cattle or sheep) and an intermediate host (mud snail), although the minimum period for the whole life cycle is 5 &#8211; 6 months. The time from ingesting infective metacercariae cysts on the pasture to adult flukes laying eggs in the bile ducts is a bout 10 &#8211; 12 weeks. Fluke thrives in wet summers and is wholly dependent on the presence of the mud snail (<em>Galba trunculata<\/em> in Europe)<\/strong><\/p><\/div>\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The mud snail requires water and warm conditions for reproduction. The &#8216;summer&#8217; infection of snails results from the hatching of overwintering eggs passed from the cattle (or eggs passed) in the spring. The metacercariae then appear on pasture from August to October.<\/p>\n<p>A smaller &#8216;winter&#8217; infection of snails is due to the infection of snails from eggs shed by the cattle in the autumn. It is thought that larval development in the snails ceases during the winter months and commences again in spring resulting in pasture contamination with metacercariae in May and June. This is significant as the infected snail hibernates carrying infection through the winter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"responsive\"><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4893\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-fluke-Fibrotic-bovine-liver.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4893\" class=\"wp-image-4893 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-fluke-Fibrotic-bovine-liver-300x193.jpg\" alt=\"Liver fluke - Fibrotic bovine liver\" width=\"300\" height=\"193\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-fluke-Fibrotic-bovine-liver-300x193.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-fluke-Fibrotic-bovine-liver.jpg 708w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-4893\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Liver fluke &#8211; Fibrotic bovine liver The longevity of fluke in cattle is about 1-2 years. When the bovine liver is infected, it provokes an immune response leading to a fibrotic reaction which prevent the fluke from migrating and feeding (Image from Andrew Forbes, University of Glasgow).<\/strong><\/p><\/div>\n<p><\/span>Acute fasciolosis is uncommon in cattle, unlike in sheep where it is a highly <span class=\"tooltips\"><a href=\"#\" rel=\"tooltip\" title=\"Capable of causing disease\">pathogenic <\/a><\/span>. Cattle develop a greater fibrotic reaction in the liver compared to sheep, therefore parasite survival is reduced.\u00a0 There is limited development of immunity to fluke, which does not prevent infection. Additionally, the immunity may wane at housing, therefore all age groups of cattle are potentially at risk of fluke infection (<a href=\"#ref\">Daniel, 2004<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>The clinical signs of chronic fasciolosis are variable and depend upon the number of metacercariae ingested, but often include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Weight loss<\/li>\n<li>Anemia<\/li>\n<li>Bottle jaw<\/li>\n<li>Diarrhea<\/li>\n<li>Constipation (<a href=\"#ref\">Torgerson, 1999<\/a>).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Fluke infection may predispose to other conditions due to impaired liver function and can reduce milk yield and fertility (<a href=\"#ref\">Schweizer et al., 2005<\/a>). In one dairy herd, subclinical ketosis was attributed to fluke infection of the cows (<a href=\"#ref\">Mason, 2004<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p><a id=\"control_prevention\"><\/a>Definitive diagnosis is based on post mortem examination. Fluke egg counts in feces can be useful indicators of infection, although false negatives do occur as the infection may not be spread evenly throughout a herd (<a href=\"#ref\">Daniel, 2004<\/a>). A coproantigen test on feces is also available which will detect fluke before a standard fecel egg count. Blood and milk serological tests are also available and can be very useful at certain times of the year, although they only indicates previous exposure, not current infection.<\/p>\n<div class=\"hr hr3\" style='margin:20px 0px 20px 0px !important;'><\/div>\n<h4>Control and Prevention of Liver Fluke in Cattle<\/h4>\n<p>Fluke prevention and control should be part of an integrated approach (in conjunction with the farm vet) to parasite control in the Herd Health Plan on any farm. Control should be farm specific and farmers must consider all livestock together as liver fluke infects cattle, sheep and other grazing animals (including rabbits and deer). Fluke control measures can be divided into 3 sections:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. Grazing management<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Avoid grazing high risk pastures\" href=\"#grazing\">Avoid grazing high risk pastures<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Avoid co-grazing sheep and cattle\" href=\"#co-grazing\">Avoid co-grazing sheep and cattle<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>2. Snail habitat management<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Fence off wet areas\" href=\"#snail\">Fence off wet areas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Field drainage\" href=\"#snail\">Drainage of wet areas<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong><a id=\"grazing\"><\/a>3. Monitoring for infection<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Faecal egg counts\" href=\"#fec\">Fecal egg counts<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Coproantigen tests\" href=\"#fec\">Coproantigen tests<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#milk\">Blood and bulk milk serology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Abattoir condemnations\" href=\"#fluke\">Abattoir condemnations<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"NADIS parasite forecast\" href=\"#nadis\">NADIS parasite forecast<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Grazing management \u2013 avoid grazing high risk pastures<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"responsive\"><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4890\" style=\"width: 970px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-Fluke-Summer-Infection-of-Snails.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4890\" class=\"wp-image-4890 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-Fluke-Summer-Infection-of-Snails-1024x452.jpg\" alt=\"Liver Fluke Summer Infection of Snails\" width=\"960\" height=\"423\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-Fluke-Summer-Infection-of-Snails-1024x452.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-Fluke-Summer-Infection-of-Snails-300x132.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-Fluke-Summer-Infection-of-Snails.jpg 1527w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 960px) 100vw, 960px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-4890\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Summer infection of snails primarily leads to winter disease in cattle.\u00a0 Under optimal conditions <em>Galba trunculata<\/em> snails can lay 3000 eggs per year. These\u00a0eggs hatch and mature within 2 weeks, and snails can be sexually mature within 3 weeks. One snail\u00a0can produce 25,000 descendants within 12 weeks. They hibernate throughout the winter then re-emerge in spring. When the temperature is\u00a010\u00b0C, the cercariae are released from the snail, and encyst on pasture as infective\u00a0metacercariae. Once ingested the juvenile flukes take about 6 &#8211; 8 weeks to react the bile ducts, where they mature into adult flukes and begin feeding and reproduction.<\/strong><\/p><\/div>\n<p><\/span>Pasture is considered to be highest risk between late summer and autumn due to the summer infection of snails and their sheer <span class=\"tooltips\"><a href=\"#\" rel=\"tooltip\" title=\"Capable of producing huge numbers of offspring\">fecundity<\/a><\/span>. This leads to disease being most prevalent from autumn onwards through the winter.\u00a0These risks are much lower following a hot dry summer.<\/p>\n<p>Winters in Northern Europe and similar temperate climates are generally too cold for liver fluke to develop. However, low levels of metacercariae can overwinter on the pasture if the climate conditions are suitable. This along with autumn infected snails hibernating, then shedding cercariae in early spring can lead to high enough levels of\u00a0metacercariae on pasture to cause low levels of clinical disease in ruminants throughout the summer.<\/p>\n<p><a id=\"co-grazing\"><\/a>Keeping stock off areas that were wet in late summer early autumn (when the snails released the cercariae) will help reduce the incidence of disease.<\/p>\n<h3>Grazing management \u2013 Avoid co-grazing<\/h3>\n<p><a id=\"snail\"><\/a>Unlike most other parasitic diseases\u00a0of ruminants, liver fluke is not host species-specific and grazing sheep with cattle on high risk pasture can potentially amplify the disease. There is little evidence to suggest that cattle or sheep develop significant\u00a0immunity to liver fluke. As sheep shed higher numbers of liver fluke eggs than cattle, co-grazing would benefit sheep but could be detrimental to cattle.<\/p>\n<h3>Snail habitat management \u2013 Fence off wet areas<\/h3>\n<p>Unlike with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/disease-management\/cattle-diseases\/parasitic-gastroenteritis-in-ruminants\/\">parasitic gastroenteritis<\/a>, liver fluke can only be found in suitable areas where the mud snail lives. The preferred habitats of <em>Galba trunculata<\/em> are shallow water, ditches, banks of slow moving streams, spring swamps and reeds. In addition well and cattle watering troughs can provide suitable habitats (<a href=\"#ref\">Knubben-Schweizer and Torgerson, 2014<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p><a id=\"fec\"><\/a><span class=\"responsive\"><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4891\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-fluke-typical-pasture-cropped.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4891\" class=\" wp-image-4891\" src=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-fluke-typical-pasture-cropped-216x300.jpg\" alt=\"Liver fluke typical pasture \" width=\"350\" height=\"486\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-fluke-typical-pasture-cropped-216x300.jpg 216w, https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-fluke-typical-pasture-cropped-738x1024.jpg 738w, https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/Liver-fluke-typical-pasture-cropped.jpg 1765w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-4891\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Wet, marshy, shallow water with a\u00a0low pH, and unconfined pasture makes the ideal habitat for <em>Galba trunculata<\/em>. Reeds are often seen in this type of habitat.<\/strong><\/p><\/div>\n<p><\/span>Identify this \u2018flukey\u2019 pasture, i.e., wet, marshy, muddy areas, often with lots of rushes growing there, and fence this area off. It will be costly in the short term but could be beneficial in the long term. However, it is clear that this is not possible on many farms as it would mean loss of significant grazing.<\/p>\n<h3>Snail habitat management \u2013 Drainage of wet areas<\/h3>\n<p><a id=\"fluke\"><\/a>Drainage of wet areas that are suitable habitats of the mud snail can be highly effective, but again will be costly in the short term but will help with liver fluke control in the long term. However drainage may not be permitted under some environmental schemes as it could be detrimental to other wildlife habitats.<\/p>\n<h3>Monitoring for infection \u2013 Fecal egg counts<\/h3>\n<p>Regular fecal samples should be taken from the cattle to determine the liver fluke burden on the farm, however FECs are limited as they will only <strong>confirm an infection<\/strong> (if eggs are seen in the fecal samples) but do not give an indication of parasite burden and if eggs are not presence in the feces, it does <strong>not<\/strong> confirm there is not a fluke infection. Only adult fluke produce eggs, and as they reside <a id=\"milk\"><\/a>in the bile ducts, the eggs are only passed out sporadically. This aside composite FECs from 10 or more animals can be useful to monitor incidence of liver fluke on farms. Due to the seasonality of liver fluke and the fact that they commence shedding eggs 10-12 weeks post infection, FECs are more useful at certain times of the year (e.g., winter and spring).<\/p>\n<h3>Monitoring for infection &#8211; Blood and bulk milk serology<\/h3>\n<p>While FECs are not very sensitive, but definite if possible, individual blood serology detects antibodies against liver fluke from two weeks post infection. They can be useful at certain times (e.g., before housing). Liver fluke serology is very sensitive (positive at exposure) and titres become positive from two weeks after infection. Therefore they are a good indicator whether infection occurred (mainly in the autumn) and if a treatment during the housing period is necessary. This treatment should eliminate liver fluke if the right product is chosen (e.g. triclabendazole two weeks after housing, other products later). Egg counts take 10-12 weeks to become positive (prepatent period), so late infections just before housing would not be detected by an early housing test, and the test is less sensitive, so positive animals can be missed.<\/p>\n<h3>Monitoring for infection \u2013 Coproantigen tests<\/h3>\n<p>This is a relatively new commercially available test which detects fluke digestive enzymes in host fecal samples. It is useful to diagnose individual cases but has not been fully evaluated on mob fecal samples.\u00a0However, coproangtigen tests\u00a0will detect fluke infection about 3 &#8211; 6 weeks before FEC.<\/p>\n<h3>Monitoring for infection \u2013 Abattoir reports<\/h3>\n<p><a id=\"nadis\"><\/a>Abattoir reports can be used as an indication of infection on a farm, however they usually condemn the liver and report with active or historical fluke infection. Also a liver condemned for fluke does not always mean a high level of infection; it could just mean that one adult fluke was seen. Nevertheless it is an indication that fluke (and the mud snail!) is on the farm, and further investigation is required.<\/p>\n<h3>Monitoring for infection \u2013 NADIS parasite forecast<\/h3>\n<p>Fasciolosis forecasts by NADIS animal health are based on the Ollerenshaw predictive model that relates meteorological data to the probable incidence of fasciolosis in particular years. These are published on the NADIS website <a title=\"NADIS parasite forecast\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nadis.org.uk\/parasite-forecast.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">here<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3>Quarantine of stock \u2013 Biosecurity<\/h3>\n<p><a id=\"treatment\"><\/a>Buying in stock brings with it the risk of disease onto a farm that was not present before. This includes the introduction of resistance parasites. Quarantine of bought-in stock should always be undertaken as a <a title=\"Biosecurity\" href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/veterinary-questions\/biosecurity\/\" target=\"_blank\">biosecurity<\/a> measure and if there is any doubt over the fluke status, treatment should be considered.<\/p>\n<div class=\"hr hr3\" style='margin:20px 0px 20px 0px !important;'><\/div>\n<h4>Treating Liver Fluke in Cattle<\/h4>\n<p><span class=\"responsive\"><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4329\" style=\"width: 361px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/Sheep-and-cows.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4329\" class=\" wp-image-4329\" src=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/Sheep-and-cows-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"Sheep and cows\" width=\"351\" height=\"233\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/Sheep-and-cows-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/Sheep-and-cows.jpg 980w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 351px) 100vw, 351px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-4329\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong><em>Fasciola hepatica<\/em> is not (definitive) host specific, it can infect both cattle and sheep, although has more severe effects in sheep. It can also infect horses, mice, rabbits and deer. There are also between 2.5 and 17 million\u00a0reported cases of human fasciolosis from eating aquatic vegetation (mainly wild watercress) contaminated with infective metacercariae (<a href=\"#ref\">Ghildiyal et al, 2014<\/a>).<\/strong><\/p><\/div>\n<p><\/span>Flukicide treatments are the most common method of control but they do not have persistent activity so will not prevent re-infection, and triclabendazole resistance\u00a0has been reported in sheep and cattle (<a href=\"#ref\">Mitchell et al., 1998<\/a>; <a href=\"#ref\">Moll et al., 2000<\/a>; <a href=\"#ref\">Thomas et al., 2000<\/a>, <a href=\"#ref\">Gordon et al., 2012<\/a>). All flukicides will effectively kill adult fluke, some (nitroxynil and closantel) will kill the late immature stages but only triclabendazole (which is used extensively in the sheep sector because of the high mortality of acute fasciolosis in sheep) is the only product effective against very early juvenile stages (2 weeks post infection onwards).<\/p>\n<p>There has been increasing interest in plants with molluscicidal (snail-killing) activity, such as some <em>Eucalyptus<\/em> spp. (<a href=\"#ref\">Hammond et al., 1994<\/a>) and the latex of <em>Euphorbiales<\/em> spp. (<a href=\"#ref\">Singh and Agarwal, 1988<\/a>). However, this research is in its early stages and there is no work quantifying the effect of these plants in the field. More research is required.<\/p>\n<p>Certain sciomyzid fly larvae have been shown to eat mud snails, and this has been put forward as a possible method for the control of snails. Work has been conducted in Ireland on <em>Ilione albiseta<\/em> to see if this insect could be exploited in the control of fasciolosis (<a href=\"#ref\">Gormally, 1987, 1988a, 1988b<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>Research is being undertaken to develop a vaccine against secretary proteins, which would prevent fluke survival. There are still significant problems to overcome, but there do appear to be some realistic prospects of producing a vaccine against <em>F. hepatica<\/em> (<a href=\"#ref\">Mulcahy et al., 1999<\/a>, <a href=\"#ref\">Jarayaj et al., 2010<\/a>). This will be useful to farmers who do have a continuous problem with chronic bovine fasciolosis.<\/p>\n<h3>Flukicides \u2013 Strategic treatments to reduce pasture contamination<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"responsive\"><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4599\" style=\"width: 279px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/09\/Healthy-Cow.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4599\" class=\"wp-image-4599\" src=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/09\/Healthy-Cow-221x300.jpg\" alt=\"Healthy Cow\" width=\"269\" height=\"343\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-4599\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Adult cattle do not build immunity to bovine fasciolosis. Due to the long milk withdrawal periods associated with many flukicides, it is recommended that if fluke has been identified as a problem on a dairy farm, that cattle are given a flukicide at drying off. In the UK recent changes in legislation only allow one product to be used in dairy cattle at drying off (Fasinex 240). For infection in lactating cows an adulticide has recently been licenced. Oxyclosanid (Zanil) and some white drenches like albendazole can be given to lactating cows if needed.<\/strong><\/p><\/div>\n<p><\/span>Strategic dosing schemes have been reported to help reduce fluke burdens over a period of four years, such that overall treatment frequencies and fluke burdens could be reduced (<a href=\"#ref\">Parr and Gray, 2000<\/a>).<\/p>\n<h3>Dairy Cattle<\/h3>\n<p>In dairy cattle which calve in the spring, treatment at drying off in the winter can be recommended. Young stock can be treated at the same time. Cows calving at other times of the year are more difficult to treat, as they may be lactating during the winter housing period. It may be possible to treat selectively cows with the heaviest burden of parasites (judged by fecal egg count) rather than blanket treating the whole herd. This will require close observation and regular fecal egg counts during the risk period. Only Abendazole and Oxyclosanide can be used during lactation (although they have long withdrawal periods, which makes use difficult), and these are only effective against adult fluke. In certain areas with high infestations, consideration should be given to synchronizing the calving pattern during the conversion period, so that the animals are not lactating during the period of maximum transmission in the autumn when treatment (against immature and mature fluke) can be given. Together with other management changes, this may be enough to keep liver fluke under control (<a href=\"#ref\">Torgerson, 1999<\/a>).<\/p>\n<h3>Beef Cattle<\/h3>\n<p>In beef cattle, the first treatment should be given at housing or, if the cattle are not housed, during late autumn and early winter. A second treatment in the spring will kill any fluke that have survived the housing treatment or, in the case of out-wintered cattle, is the result of reinfection. A product that only kills adult fluke will suffice for this treatment. These cattle will not be able to infect the pasture. In some areas, a third treatment in the summer may be necessary to kill any fluke which result from the winter infection of snails. Over time, the number of treatments may be reduced to a single treatment at housing, and eventually as other on-farm <a title=\"On-farm control measures\" href=\"#control_prevention\">control measures<\/a> are put into place, treatment may be dispensed with.<\/p>\n<h3>Flukicides \u2013 Therapeutic treatment<\/h3>\n<p>Therapeutic treatments are for those animals showing signs of disease, and for animals who are not showing overt signs of disease but have sub-clinical disease which is affecting production and may pre-dispose to other diseases. Following clinical cases of bovine fasciolosis, it is likely that the whole herd is suffering from the infection, although there may be large individual differences. This can be checked by fecal egg counts. Regular treatments are initially given at 12-13 week intervals to reduce the intensity of infection in the herd. The number of treatments may be reduced following the reduction in prevalence of liver fluke (<a href=\"#ref\">Torgerson, 1999<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p><a id=\"good_practice\"><\/a>Fluke burdens can vary enormously on the same farm from year to year, therefore constant surveillance and monitoring should be encouraged, by means of <a title=\"Monitoring for fluke infection\" href=\"#nadis\">forecasting<\/a>, <a title=\"Faecal egg counts\" href=\"#fec\">fecal sampling<\/a> and <a title=\"Abattoir feedback\" href=\"#fluke\">abattoir feedback<\/a>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"hr hr3\" style='margin:20px 0px 20px 0px !important;'><\/div>\n<div class=\"two_third\">\n<h4>Good Practice Based on Current Knowledge<\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li>Fence off snail habitats or exclude stock from fluke areas at periods of high risk of infection where possible<\/li>\n<li>Keep an eye on the fluke forecast for the year<\/li>\n<li>If necessary, work out a strategic worming regimen against liver fluke with the farm vet<\/li>\n<li>Herds with clinical cases of bovine fasciolosis require regular treatments with a flukicide that kills both mature and immature fluke until prevalence is reduced<\/li>\n<li>Fecal egg counts are advisable on a regular basis to follow disease trends<\/li>\n<li>Where possible, obtain feedback from abattoirs where cattle are killed to obtain information on liver fluke prevalence<\/li>\n<li>It may be possible to treat cows on an individual basis following fecal egg counts rather than treating the whole herd. This will require close observation and regular fecal egg counts during the risk period.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"one_third last\">\n<span class=\"responsive\"><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4410\" style=\"width: 229px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.cattleparasites.org.uk\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4410\" class=\"wp-image-4410\" src=\"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/11\/cows_logo-300x250.jpg\" alt=\"Control of Worms Sustainably\" width=\"219\" height=\"180\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-4410\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Further guidance on liver fluke control, prevention and treatment can be found in the COWS (Control of Worms Sustainably) guidelines<\/strong><\/p><\/div>\n<p><\/span>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"clear\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"hr hr3\" style='margin:20px 0px 20px 0px !important;'><\/div>\n<p><a id=\"ref\"><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"toggle\">\n<div class=\"toggle-title active\">Liver Fluke References<span><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"toggle-inner\">\n<div id=\"zotpress-731accff22f5c90986f5baf773beb6ff\" class=\"zp-Zotpress zp-Zotpress-Bib wp-block-group\">\n\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_API_USER_ID\" style=\"display: none;\">254757<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_ITEM_KEY\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_COLLECTION_ID\" style=\"display: none;\">GUVGWHS8<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_TAG_ID\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_AUTHOR\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_YEAR\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n        <span class=\"ZP_ITEMTYPE\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n        <span class=\"ZP_ITEM_TYPE\" style=\"display: none;\">items<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_INCLUSIVE\" style=\"display: none;\">1<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_STYLE\" style=\"display: none;\">apa<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_LIMIT\" style=\"display: none;\">0<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_SORTBY\" style=\"display: none;\">author<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_ORDER\" style=\"display: none;\">asc<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_TITLE\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_SHOWIMAGE\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_SHOWTAGS\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_DOWNLOADABLE\" style=\"display: none;\">1<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_NOTES\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_ABSTRACT\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_CITEABLE\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_TARGET\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_URLWRAP\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZP_FORCENUM\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n        <span class=\"ZP_HIGHLIGHT\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span>\n        <span class=\"ZP_POSTID\" style=\"display: none;\">4884<\/span>\n\t\t<span class=\"ZOTPRESS_PLUGIN_URL\" style=\"display:none;\">https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/zotpress\/<\/span>\n\n\t\t<div class=\"zp-List loading\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"zp-SEO-Content\">\n\n\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-zp-SEO-Content -->\n\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-List -->\n\t<\/div><!--.zp-Zotpress-->\n\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p> [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":9,"featured_media":4272,"parent":724,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"page-fullwidth.php","meta":{"footnotes":""},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4884"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/9"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4884"}],"version-history":[{"count":47,"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4884\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":11522,"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4884\/revisions\/11522"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/724"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/4272"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.farmhealthonline.com\/US\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4884"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}